Vitamin A

Contents

• Essential Information
• Additional Tips
• Dietary Reference Intakes
• Plant Food Sources of Vitamin A
• Vitamin A Deficiency
• Absorption and Conversion of Carotenoids
• References

Essential Information

Vitamin A is important for night vision and bone density. Vegans should eat at least two servings of good sources daily. Good sources are vegetables and fruits whose edible flesh is orange: carrots and other root vegetables (1/2 cup), squash (1/2 cup), and melons (2 cups). The orange color indicates beta-carotene which our bodies can turn into vitamin A. Dark leafy green vegetables (1 cup cooked) are also high in vitamin A. Foods with yellow flesh are generally not good sources of vitamin A.

Pumpkin Mac and Cheese Recipe

A great way to help satisfy your vitamin A needs is with pumpkin mac and cheese!

Ingredients

• 12 to 16 oz pasta
• 15 oz can of pureed pumpkin
• 1/2 tsp garlic powder
• 1/2 tsp salt
• 2 tbsp olive oil
• 1 cup of unsweetened soymilk
• 1 cup of nutritional yeast or vegan cheese

Instructions

1. Cook the pasta, cool, and set aside.
2. Mix the remaining ingredients in a pot on medium heat, stirring constantly, until blended (about 5 minutes).
3. Add sauce to the pasta.
4. Sprinkle with ground pepper before eating.

Additional Tips

Eating vegetables high in beta-carotene with some fat has been shown to increase both the absorption and synthesis of vitamin A.

Plant Food Sources of Vitamin A

Preformed vitamin A exists only in animal products. However, there are about 50 carotenoids that the body can convert into vitamin A, with the most common being beta-carotene. The vitamin A content of foods is measured in retinol activity equivalents (RAE).

Our spreadsheet, Vitamin A Content of Plant Foods, list most of the plant foods highest in RAE.

Dietary Reference Intakes

Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A
Age	US DRI (RAE)	Upper Limit (RAE)
0–6 mos	400	600
7–12 mos	500	600
1–3	300	600
4–8	400	900
9–13	600	1,700
14–18 male	900	2,800
14-18 female	700	2,800
≥ 19 male	900	3,000
> 19 female	700	3,000
Pregnancy
≤ 18	750	2,800
19–50	770	3,000
Breastfeeding
≤ 18	1,200	2,800
19–50	1,300	3,000

The upper limit for vitamin A applies only to the retinol form (found in animal products, fortified foods, and supplements), but does not apply to carotenoids.

Vitamin A Deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency symptoms begin with night blindness and can progress to more severe eye problems such as corneal ulcers, scarring, and blindness (Linus Pauling Institute, 2013). Vitamin A deficiency also reduces the ability to ward off infections. Vitamin A is important for growth and development in infants and children, and for red blood cell formation.

For a discussion of the role of vitamin A and bone health, see the β-carotene and Vitamin A section of our article, Bone Fractures among U.K. Vegans: Implications and Recommendations.

Absorption and Conversion of Carotenoids

Eating vegetables high in carotenoids with some fat has been shown to increase both the absorption and synthesis of vitamin A (Kopec, 2014).

Many factors affect how well dietary carotenoids are absorbed and converted to vitamin A, including body composition, age, smoking, medications, alcohol consumption, food processing, and genetic variation (Moran, 2018, Linus Pauling Institute, 2020). As many as 50% of individuals in some populations may have a low response to beta-carotene and other carotenoids, meaning they either don’t absorb as much as others do or they don’t convert as much to vitamin A (Lietz,2012).

Researchers are looking into how genetic variability impacts the conversion of carotenoids into vitamin A and whether recommendations should vary according to people’s genetic type (Borel, 2017). But at this point, it’s not possible outside of a research setting to determine if someone has a lower response to dietary carotenoids. Even so-called “low-responders” apparently can absorb some dietary carotenoids and convert some to vitamin A (Borel, 2012).

We don’t know the amount of provitamin A carotenoids that is optimal for a low responder who relies exclusively on carotenoids. But choosing a generous amount of foods containing beta-carotene and other provitamin A carotenoids may lead to greater absorption and more conversion in low-responders (Borel, 2015). Until more is known, our best advice is to meet the intake recommendations for provitamin A carotenoids by eating generous amounts of leafy green vegetables, carrots, sweet potatoes, and bright orange winter squashes.

If you have concerns about vitamin A, taking a vegan supplement providing a small amount of preformed vitamin A in the form of retinol is another option. The recommendation for a small amount is because some observational studies have found an increased risk for bone fracture with intakes of preformed vitamin A above 1,500 mcg RAE, only slightly more than the RDA (Feskanich, 2002, Wu, 2014). In any case, preformed vitamin A intakes should not exceed 3,000 mcg RAE (10,000 IU) daily (Food and Nutrition Board, 2001).

Bibliography

Borel P. Genetic variations involved in interindividual variability in carotenoid status. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2012 Feb;56(2):228-40.

Borel P, Desmarchelier C, Nowicki M, Bott R. A combination of single-nucleotide polymorphisms is associated with interindividual variability in dietary β-carotene bioavailability in healthy men. J Nutr. 2015 Aug;145(8):1740-7.

Borel P, Desmarchelier C. Genetic variations associated with vitamin A status and vitamin A bioavailability. Nutrients. 2017 Mar 8;9(3).

Feskanich D, Singh V, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Vitamin A intake and hip fractures among postmenopausal women. JAMA. 2002;287(1):47-54.

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.

Groufh-Jacobsen S, Larsson C, Mulkerrins I, Aune D, Medin AC. Food groups, macronutrient intake and objective measures of total carotenoids and fatty acids in 16-to-24-year-olds following different plant-based diets compared to an omnivorous diet. PLoS One. 2025 Jan 17;20(1):e0311118. Not cited. Measured blood carotenoids in 16 to 24 year old omnivores (1.29 µmol/l), flexitarians (1.56 µmol/l), pescatarians (1.38 µmol/l), lacto-ovo-vegetarians (1.20 µmol/l), and vegans (1.36 µmol/l). Retinol levels weren’t measured.

Kopec RE, Cooperstone JL, Schweiggert RM, Young GS, Harrison EH, Francis DM, Clinton SK, Schwartz SJ. Avocado Consumption Enhances Human Postprandial Provitamin A Absorption and Conversion from a Novel High-β-Carotene Tomato Sauce and from Carrots. J Nutr. 2014 Aug;144(8):1158-66.

Lietz G, Oxley A, Leung W, Hesketh J. Single nucleotide polymorphisms upstream from the β-carotene 15,15′-monoxygenase gene influence provitamin A conversion efficiency in female volunteers. J Nutr. 2012 Jan;142(1):161S-5S.

Linus Pauling Institute. Vitamin A. Accessed 1/25/2013.

Linus Pauling Institute. Carotenoids. Accessed 1/9/2020.

Moran NE, Mohn ES, Hason N, Erdman JW Jr, Johnson EJ. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors impacting absorption, metabolism, and health effects of dietary carotenoids. Adv Nutr. 2018 Jul 1;9(4):465-492.

Rotenstreich Y, Harats D, Shaish A, Pras E, Belkin M. Treatment of a retinal dystrophy, fundus albipunctatus, with oral 9-cis-{beta}-carotene. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010 May;94(5):616-21. Not cited. Clinical trial feeding beta-carotene to people with a genetic defect in the retinal cycle. After 90 days, night blindness improved.

Wu AM, Huang CQ, Lin ZK, et al. The relationship between vitamin A and risk of fracture: meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Bone Miner Res. 2014;29(9):2032-2039.